Beyond participation: Mapping women’s employment crisis in Punjab
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.64171/JAES.1.2.75-86Keywords:
Women’s labour participation, Gender gap, Social groups, Employment quality, Informality, Education, PunjabAbstract
This study examines long-term trends in women's labour force participation in Punjab using unit-level data from five key rounds of the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO)—50th (1993–94), 55th (1999–2000), 61st (2004–05), 68th (2011–12)—and the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2017–18. Employing trend analysis, tabulations, and visual representations, the study explores gendered employment patterns across caste groups, educational levels, and age cohorts. The findings reveal a sharp decline in female Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR), from 28.6% in 1993 to 16.4% in 2017, alongside a widening gender gap. Caste-wise analysis shows SC/ST women historically had higher LFPR than OBC and General category women, though participation declined across all groups post-2004. Educational analysis reveals a paradox: increasing literacy has not led to higher employment, with the most educated women often showing the lowest LFPR. Additionally, a shift from unpaid to wage-based employment is noted, but most women remain in insecure, informal jobs with limited access to written contracts, paid leave, or social security. The study underscores the need for inclusive, caste-sensitive, and skill-linked employment policies that improve both the quantity and quality of women’s work in Punjab.
References
Chatterjee U, Murgai R, Rama M. Job opportunities along the rural-urban gradation and female labor force participation in India. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 7412. 2015. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-7412
Chaudhary R, Verick S. Female labour force participation in India and beyond. ILO Asia-Pacific Working Paper Series. International Labour Organization, 2014.
Das M, Jain-Chandra S, Kochhar K. Women workers in India: Why so few among so many? IMF Working Paper WP/15/55. International Monetary Fund, 2015. Available from: https://doi.org/10.5089/9781475532404.001
Deshpande A. The grammar of caste: Economic discrimination in contemporary India. Oxford University Press, 2011.
Fletcher EK, Pande R, Moore CT. Women and work in India: Descriptive evidence and a review of potential policies. Harvard Kennedy School Women and Public Policy Program, 2017.
Gill N, Kaur H. Determinants of female labour force participation in Punjab: A micro study. Int J Res Anal Rev. 2018;5(4):599–607.
Hirway I, Jose S. Understanding women's work using time-use statistics: The case of India. Fem Econ. 2011;17(4):67–92. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2011.620975
Kapsos S, Silberman A, Bourmpoula E. Why is female labour force participation declining so sharply in India? ILO Research Paper No. 10. International Labour Organization; 2014. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2537190
Kaur R, Kaur P. Female labour force participation in Punjab: Inter-state comparison and trends. Int J Soc Sci Interdiscip Res. 2013;2(9):105–117.
Kingdon GG, Unni J. Education and women's labour market outcomes in India. Educ Econ. 2001;9(2):173–195. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/09645290110056994
Majumdar M. Dalit women and work participation: A field study in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Indian J Gend Stud. 2010;17(3):345–70. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1177/097152151001700303
Mehrotra S, Parida JK. Why is the labour force participation of women declining in India? World Dev. 2017;98:360–380. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.05.003
Mukhopadhyay S, Tendulkar SD. Gender differentials in labour force participation in India: A decomposition analysis. Indian J Labour Econ. 2006;49(2):233–248.
Neetha N. Making of female breadwinners: Migration and social networking of women domestics in Delhi. Econ Polit Wkly. 2002;37(17):1681–1688.
Sarkar S, Sahoo S, Klasen S. Employment transitions of women in India: A panel analysis. World Dev. 2019;115:291–309. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.12.003
Sidhu RS. Women workers in Punjab agriculture: A study of two districts. Indian J Labour Econ. 2005;48(4):1021–1030.
Singh S, Singh G. Gender dimension in agricultural labour: A case study of Punjab. Asian Econ Rev. 2010;52(1):85–94.
Thorat S, Newman KS. Caste and economic discrimination: Causes, consequences and remedies. Econ Polit Wkly. 2007;42(41):4121–4124.
